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Vol. 16, Issue 9, 3937-3950, September 2005
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* Epithelial Biology Unit, The Ronald O. Perelman Department of Dermatology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016;
Department of Pharmacology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016;
Department of Cell Biology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016;
|| Department of Urology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016; and
NYU Cancer Institute, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016
Submitted February 16, 2005;
Revised June 3, 2005;
Accepted June 7, 2005
Monitoring Editor: Jeffrey Brodsky
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ABSTRACT |
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 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONACKNOWLEDGMENTSREFERENCES |
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INTRODUCTION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONACKNOWLEDGMENTSREFERENCES |
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; Vergara et al., 1969; Brisson and Wade, 1983) forming a remarkable permeability barrier (Negrete et al., 1996; Lewis, 2000; Apodaca, 2004). 2) Because uroplakins are synthesized as the major specialization products of mammalian urothelium, they can be isolated as 2D crystals in milligram quantities, thus facilitating their structural analyses (Wu et al., 1990; Walz et al., 1995; Kachar et al., 1999; Oostergetel et al., 2001; Min et al., 2003). 3) The four uroplakins form two heterodimers each consisting of a tetraspanin member, i.e., UPIa and UPIb (of the "tetraspanin" family; see below), which bind to UPII and UPIIIa, respectively (Wu et al., 1995; Liang et al., 2001). The formation of the UPIa/II and UPIb/IIIa heterodimers is a prerequisite for uroplakins to exit from the ER (Tu et al., 2002), thus facilitating the analysis of uroplakin processing. 4) Cultured urothelial cells can synthesize all uroplakins which, however, do not assemble into 2D crystals (Surya et al., 1990), indicating that the later stages of membrane assembly leading to the formation of 2D crystals can be studied by comparing the processing and assembly of uroplakins in normal urothelium versus cultured urothelial cells. 5) Uroplakins are functionally important as the ablation of uroplakins II or IIIa gene abolishes urothelial plaque formation and compromises the barrier function (Hu et al., 2000, 2002; Kong et al., 2004).
Uroplakins Ia and Ib belong to the tetraspanin family, which contains many cell surface proteins involved in a variety of cellular activities including cell mobility, interactions and fusion, immunological signaling, tumor progression, pathogen invasion, and membrane architecture (Maecker et al., 1997; Boucheix and Rubinstein, 2001; Hemler, 2003). These proteins possess four transmembrane domains, with a small and a large extracellular loop—the latter harboring several highly conserved cysteine residues (Stipp et al., 2003b). Many tetraspanins interact with important single-transmembrane-domained signaling proteins; examples of such tetraspanin/partner interactions include CD9/pro-TGF-
or pro-HB-epidermal growth factor; CD9, CD81, or CD82/CD4; CD82/EGFR; and CD151/integrins (Boucheix and Rubinstein, 2001; Hemler, 2003). It has been suggested that by recruiting the signaling molecules to membrane subdomains called "tetraspanin webs," tetraspanins can lower the concentration threshold of the ligands that are required to trigger cellular responses (Maecker et al., 1997; Boucheix and Rubinstein, 2001; Hemler, 2003; Tarrant et al., 2003). Studies on tetraspanins are hampered, however, by their usually weak interactions with multiple partners (Hemler, 2001). In contrast, tetraspanin uroplakins interact with their partners in a highly specific, strong, and stoichiometric manner, thus providing unique opportunities for detailed mechanistic studies of their interactions with their partners.
The amino acid sequences of mammalian uroplakins are highly conserved, suggesting that they play an essential function in urinary bladder epithelium (Wu et al., 1994; Sun et al., 1999). Uroplakins Ia (27-kDa) and Ib (28-kDa) are 
40% identical in their amino acid sequences and are both tetraspanins (Yu et al., 1994). UPII is synthesized as a pre (26 amino acids)–pro (59 amino acids)–mature protein (100 amino acids); the mature UPII (15-kDa) can be divided into a long extracellular domain of 71 amino acids and a transmembrane domain of 25 amino acids, with almost no intracellular domain (Lin et al., 1994). UPIIIa is synthesized as a pre-protein; the mature protein (47-kDa) contains an apoprotein of 29-kDa plus 18-kDa equivalents of complex glycans, and it is the only uroplakin that has a significant cytoplasmic domain (of 52 amino acid residues; Wu and Sun, 1993). How these uroplakins assemble into 2D crystals is unclear.
In this article, we use a panel of antibodies that can distinguish different conformational states of uroplakins to study AUM assembly. We demonstrate that global conformational changes occur during uroplakin interaction and processing. We propose a model in which the differentiation-dependent glycosylation and the removal of UPII prosequence are involved in regulating AUM assembly. Studies on several other nonuroplakin tetraspanins suggest that, possibly as a general rule, members of the tetraspanin family facilitate the ER-exit, stabilization, and surface presentation of their single-transmembrane-domained partner proteins.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONACKNOWLEDGMENTSREFERENCES |
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-lactone (CLL), N-acetyl-L-leucinyl-L-leucinyl-norleucinal (ALLN) and carbobenzoxy-L-leucyl-L-leucyl-L-leucinal (MG132; Biomol, Plymouth Meeting, PA); monoclonal antibodies to GST, CD4, and CD82 (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Santa Cruz, CA); pGEX4T-3 vector (Amersham, Piscataway, NJ); antibodies to CD9 (SYB-1) and CD81 (TS81), and human CD9 and CD81 cDNAs (Eric Rubinstein); human CD82 cDNA (Xin A. Zhang); and human CD4 cDNA (Dan R. Littman). All the cDNAs were subcloned into pcDNA3 (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA), a eukaryotic expression vector. For the preparation of urothelial plaques (AUM), bovine urothelium was homogenized in buffer A (10 mM HEPES, pH 7.5; 1 mM EDTA; 1 mM EGTA; 1 mM phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride), loaded onto a 1.6 M sucrose cushion, and centrifuged at 16,000 rpm for 25 min at 4°C (Beckman, Fullerton, CA; SW28). The crude membranes (CM) concentrated at the interface were isolated, washed with buffer A, treated with 2% Sarkosyl in Buffer A for 10 min at 25°C, and pelleted, resulting in the Sarkosyl-insoluble AUM (Liang et al., 1999).
Cultured Cells
Bovine urothelial cells were cultured in the Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM, Life Technologies, Rockville, MD) containing 15% fetal bovine serum (FBS) in the presence of mitomycin C-pretreated 3T3 feeder cells as described previously (Surya et al., 1990). COS-1 cells (ATCC) and furin-deficient 7.P15 cells (originally selected from COS-7 cells and kindly provided by Joseph F. Sucic; Inocencio et al., 1997) were grown overnight in DMEM containing 10% FBS and in DMEM/F12 (1:1) containing 7.5% FBS, respectively; and transfected using a mixture of cDNA and FuGENE6 reagent (Roche, Indianapolis, IN; 1:3, wt/vol) in 100 µl of serum-free DMEM. The transfectants were analyzed 24–48 h later.
Deglycosylation and Immunoblotting
Deglycosylation was performed according to manufacturer's instructions (New England Biolabs, Beverly, MA). Briefly, cell lysates were denatured in 0.5% SDS and 1% -mercaptoethanol at 25°C for 10 min, made to contain 50 mM sodium citrate (pH 5.5), and incubated with endo H at 37°C for 16 h (complete deglycosylation) or at 25°C for 6 h (partial deglycosylation). Alternatively, sodium phosphate (pH 7.5) and NP-40 were added to the denatured cell lysates to a final concentration of 50 mM and 1%, respectively, and the mixture was incubated with endo F. SDS-PAGE (17% acrylamide) and immunoblotting were done as described (Liang et al., 2001).
Epitope Mapping
Full-length bovine UPII cDNA (template) and specific PCR primers were used to amplify various truncated UPII fragments, which were subsequently subcloned into the pGEX4T-3 vector. The constructs encoding various GST-(truncated UPII) fusion proteins were sequenced and induced to express in DH5 cells using isopropyl--D-thiogalactopyranoside (0.5 mM; Sigma, St. Louis, MO).
Cross-linking
Ten microliters of disuccinimidyl suberate (50 mM in dimethyl sulfoxide) were added to 100 µl of transfectant lysates in the nuclear extraction buffer (20 mM HEPES, pH 7.6; 20% glycerol; 500 mM NaCl; 1.5 mM MgCl2; 0.2 mM EDTA; 0.1% Triton X-100; 1 mM dithiothreitol) with protease inhibitors (Cocktail Set 1, Calbiochem). The mixture was incubated for 1 h on ice and quenched with 50 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.5) for 30 min on ice.
Mutagenesis
Mutagenesis was performed according to the instructions provided with the QuikChange site-directed mutagenesis kit (Stratagene, La Jolla, CA). After the mutations were confirmed by DNA sequencing, the insert was excised from the old vector and ligated back into the nonamplified pcDNA3 vector to eliminate potential mutations in the plasmid DNA caused by the Pfu amplification reaction.
In Vitro Cleavage of Pro-UPII by Furin
Pro-UPII expressed in the furin-deficient 7.P15 cells was immunopurified using the AE31 antibody attached to protein A/G PLUS-agarose beads (Santa Cruz Biotechnology), suspended in 50 mM sodium acetate (pH 5.4) containing 1 mM CaCl2, and incubated with 10 U of furin in a total volume of 100 µl at 25°C for 16 h.
Pulse-chase Labeling
Cells were starved in the methionine-free DMEM medium containing dialyzed serum (Life Technologies) for 1 h and pulse-labeled for 1 h in the same medium supplemented with 125 µCi/ml [35S]methionine. The cells were then incubated in the DMEM medium for a certain chase period, rinsed with phosphate-buffered saline, lysed in RIPA buffer (10 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.4; 150 mM NaCl; 1% NP-40; 0.5% sodium deoxycholate; 0.1% SDS; 1 mM EDTA) containing protease inhibitors, dispersed by passing through a 25-gauge needle (15 times), rocked at 4°C for 1 h, centrifuged at 16,000 x g for 10 min at 4°C to pellet the nuclei, and stored at –80°C before further analyses.
Immunoprecipitation
[35S]methionine-labeled cell lysates in RIPA buffer containing protease inhibitors were preincubated with preimmune sera along with Protein A/G-agarose beads at 4°C to reduce the background. The cleared lysate was combined with a primary antibody plus Protein A/G-agarose beads and rotated head-over-head overnight at 4°C. The bead-bound proteins were analyzed by SDS-PAGE. The gel was fixed, impregnated with the Amplify solution (Amersham), dried under vacuum, and fluorographed. The band density was determined by scanning x-ray films using the GS-800 calibrated densitometer (Bio-Rad, Richmond, CA) followed by analyses using the Quantity One program (Bio-Rad).
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RESULTS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONACKNOWLEDGMENTSREFERENCES |
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). Immunoaffinity-purified AE31 antigen had an N-terminal sequence of D/A-F/A-A-I/A-S-T-L-S... (Figure 1B, sequence 1), which was almost identical to that of the prosequence of UPII (sequence 2; Lin et al., 1994). A similar sequence (sequence 5 or X) was obtained by subtracting the N-terminal sequence of UPIb (sequence 4; Yu et al., 1994) from the mixed N-terminal sequences of the 27–32-kDa "uroplakin I" protein band in AUM (sequence 3). These results raised the possibility that the AE31 antigen was the pro-UPII, instead of being related to uroplakin I as we previously thought (Yu et al., 1990). To test this possibility, we transfected COS-1 cells using cDNA encoding UPII and immunoblotted the total cellular proteins using AE31. We found that AE31 indeed recognized a 29-kDa band (Figure 1C, lane 1), which is also recognized by a rabbit antiserum to the prosequence of UPII (-Pro; Figure 1C, lane 5). Moreover, the 29-kDa antigen pulled down by the AE31 antibody could be immunoblotted using the -Pro antibody, and vice versa (see below), thus further establishing the identity of the AE31-antigen as the pro-UPII. The 29-kDa pro-UPII could be converted to the 18- and 17-kDa forms after it was treated with endo H and endo F, respectively (Figure 1C, lanes 2–3), indicating the presence of high mannose glycans (the 1-kDa difference was due to the removal of N-acetylglucosamines). Interestingly, the 29-kDa pro-UPII of cultured bovine urothelial (BU) cells (Figure 1A, lane 7), which are less differentiated than in vivo urothelium (Surya et al., 1990), was 3-kDa smaller than the pro-UPII of the in vivo umbrella cells (32-kDa; Figure 1A, lane 6; see below). Finally, we mapped the AE31 epitope on pro-UPII by immunoblotting various recombinant fragments of pro-UPII using the AE31 antibody. We found that the AE31-immunoreactivity required two separate domains of the pro-UPII, one located in the prosequence region (amino acid residues –50 to –40), whereas the other located 80 amino acid residues away in the middle of the mature UPII sequence (residues 40–60; Figure 1D). These results established that AE31 recognized a composite pro-UPII epitope consisting of two distant sequences that bound to each other forming presumably a hairpinlike structure that was stable under SDS-PAGE conditions.
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; Liang et al., 2001). Although the AE31 antibody selectively recognized pro-UPII (Figure 2B, lanes 1–3), all four rabbit antisera recognized only the 15-kDa mature UPII, in cultured BU cells (Figure 2B, lanes 4–6 for anti-P4; and unpublished data). Because pro-UPII obviously contained all four linear sequences against which the rabbit antisera were raised, these findings indicated that such epitopes were somehow masked or conformationally altered in the tightly packed pro-UPII so that they were not recognized by the rabbit antisera, that the removal of the prosequence led to the unmasking/conformational changes of P1-P4 epitopes, and that the immunological distinction between pro-UPII and mature UPII was maintained under SDS-PAGE conditions (Figure 2B).
Interactions between UPIa and UPII
The availability of these two sets of conformation-dependent antibodies, which can distinguish pro-UPII from mature UPII (Figure 2B), allowed us to study how pro-UPII interacted with its tetraspanin partner, UPIa. Transfecting COS-1 cells with the full-length UPII cDNA alone resulted in the formation of pro-UPII aggregates, which could best be visualized after cross-linking (Figure 2C, lanes 1 and 2). Coexpression of UPII with its partner UPIa (Figure 2C, lanes 3–4), but not with UPIb or UPIIIa (lanes 5–8), led to the processing of pro-UPII giving rise to the 15-kDa UPII recognized by rabbit antisera to mature UPII; in such cells the pro-UPII aggregation became undetectable even in overloaded gels (Figure 2C, lanes 9 and 10).
Four lines of evidence established that furin, a trans-Golgi network (TGN)-associated endopeptidase, was responsible for pro-UPII processing. First, the UPIa-dependent processing of pro-UPII could be blocked by decanoyl-Arg-Val-Lys-Arg-chloromethylketone, a furin inhibitor (Figure 2D, lanes 2–4). Second, pro-UPII processing was completely blocked by two mutations (Arg(-1)Ala and Arg(-4)Ala) in its RGRR furin cleavage motif (Figure 2D, lanes 5–7). Third, pro-UPII processing was blocked in two furin-deficient cell lines, 7.P15 (Figure 2E, lane 6) and RPE.40 (unpublished data). Finally, the processing of the pro-UPII expressed in furin-deficient 7.P15 cells could be restored in vitro using an exogenous recombinant human furin (Figure 2F, lanes 4 and 6).
To analyze the effects of UPIa on pro-UPII processing, we [35S]methionine-labeled COS-1 cells that had been transfected with cDNA of either UPII or UPIa alone, or both, and performed immunoprecipitations after various chase intervals to assess the turnover rate of these uroplakins (Figure 3). Pro-UPII expressed alone turned over with a half-life of 2.2 h (Figure 3, A, lanes 2–6, and B); treatment of the cells with proteasome inhibitors led to a tremendous accumulation of pro-UPII (Figure 3E, lanes 2–5), suggesting that the unpaired pro-UPII was trapped in the ER and was degraded via the proteasome pathway. As shown earlier (Figure 2C), pro-UPII coexpressed with UPIa was rapidly processed (T1/2 < 1 h) into mature UPII (Figure 3A, lanes 9–15), which was stable and could be recognized by the rabbit antisera (Figure 3A, lane 16); AE31 (which did not recognize mature UPII; Figures 1A and 2B) could pull down in these cotransfected cells small amounts of mature UPII, most likely because of binding of the mature UPII to the coprecipitated UPIa (Figure 3A). A somewhat different situation existed for UPIa, which when expressed alone turned over with a half-life of 3.5 h (Figure 3, C and D), probably also via the proteasome pathway (Figure 3E, lanes 11–13). UPIa was, however, stabilized when coexpressed with UPII (Figure 3, C and D). Similar results were obtained by pulse-chase studies of the uroplakins synthesized by cultured BU cells (Figure 3F), indicating that our transfection data obtained using COS-1 cells were applicable to diploid urothelial cells. Taken together, these results indicated that UPIa enabled pro-UPII to exit from the ER in the form of UPIa/pro-UPII heterodimer and to be proteolytically processed by furin in the TGN to yield a conformationally distinct and stable, mature UPII (see Discussion).
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3.8 h (Figure 4B) and was degraded by proteasomes (Figure 4C, lanes 2 and 3).
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Unexpectedly, when coexpressed with UPIb, UPIIIa could no longer be immunoprecipitated by any of these UPIIIa antibodies (unpublished data), suggesting conformational changes. Increasing the SDS concentration in the immunoprecipitation reaction (from 0.1 to 0.5%), however, led to the unmasking of all the UPIIIa epitopes (defined by AU1 and rabbit sera) in both the 43-kDa immature UPIIIa and the 44–46-kDa mature UPIIIa (that harbored endo H-resistant complex sugars) in the double transfectants (Figure 4D, lanes 10 and 11). These results were analogous to those of UPII and suggested that when UPIIIa bound to its partner UPIb, it underwent considerable conformational changes so that its multiple epitopes became masked (see Discussion). By repeating the immunoprecipitations of the pulse-chase experiments at 0.5% SDS instead of the usual 0.1% SDS, we found that UPIIIa, when coexpressed with UPIb, rapidly passed through the ER and the Golgi apparatus as evidenced by its size increase and its acquisition of endo H-resistance (Figure 4A, lanes 9–14); the endo H-resistant, mature UPIIIa became very stable (Figure 4, A and B) and the proteasome inhibitor treatments did not cause its accumulation (Figure 4C, lanes 4–7). Similar results were obtained from studying cultured BU cells (unpublished data).
Interestingly, UPIb was the only major uroplakin that was stable by itself with a half-life (>8 h) not affected by its partner UPIIIa (Figure 4, E and F), and UPIb did not accumulate in response to proteasome inhibitor treatments (Figure 4C, lanes 9–11). These results are consistent with the facts that UPIb can by itself exit from the ER (Tu et al., 2002) and that UPIb is singly expressed in several nonurothelial epithelia such as the corneal epithelium (Adachi et al., 2000).
Differentiation-dependent Glycosylation of Uroplakins
An interesting feature of the pro-UPII, which contained three potential N-glycosylation sites in its prosequence, was that its size was differentiation-dependent. Thus it appeared as a 32-kDa protein in the AUM purified from in vivo bovine urothelium, but as a 29-kDa protein in cultured BU cells (Figure 1A, lanes 6 and 7). Transfection studies using UPII cDNA with the three N-glycosylation sites mutated, singly or in various combinations, showed that all these sites were glycosylated and harbored about equal amounts of sugar (Figure 5A). Complete deglycosylation of the 32- and 29-kDa glycoproteins by endo F yielded an identical protein core of 17-kDa (Figure 5B, lanes 1–3 and 7–9). Both the 32- and 29-kDa species were present in the crude membrane (CM) fraction isolated from in vivo urothelium (Figure 5B, lanes 4–6). Studies of the partial deglycosylation intermediates established that the 29-kDa band harbored three high-mannose glycans, whereas the AUM-associated 32-kDa band harbored one high-mannose glycan and two complex glycans (Figure 5C). Interestingly, the 32- and 29-kDa bands were exclusively associated with the Sarkosyl-insoluble (SI) and Sarkosyl-soluble (SS) fractions, respectively (Figure 5C), suggesting that only the former was present in the fully assembled AUM.
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3.5 h), but could be significantly stabilized by tetraspanins CD9 and CD81 (T1/2 increased to 8 h; see Figure 6, B and C for the effect of CD9, and Figure 6, E and F for the effect of CD81, on the stability of CD4). Tetraspanin CD82 was intrinsically quite unstable (T1/2 =2 h; Figure 6, G and I) but could still exert a significant stabilizing effect on CD4 (T1/2 increased from 4 h to 7.3 h; Figure 6, H and I). These findings indicated that nonuroplakin tetraspanins could also stabilize their partner protein, but not vice versa.
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DISCUSSION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONACKNOWLEDGMENTSREFERENCES |
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), the precise nature of the AE31 antigen has remained unclear for more than a decade. The 27- to 32-kDa urothelial membrane protein recognized by the AE31 mAb, previously known as "uroplakin I" (Yu et al., 1990), has several puzzling properties, which can now be understood in light of our current data. 1) Although the N-terminal sequence of the AE31 antigen was identical to that of pro-UPII (Figure 1B; sequences 1 and 2), it was puzzling that this antigen was not recognized by antibodies against four separate UPII epitopes (Figure 2B). This can now be explained by the prosequence-induced conformational changes of UPII (Figure 7, C and D). 2) Previous pulse-chase experiments using cultured BU cells yielded data, suggesting that the AE31 antigen was synthesized as a 32-kDa precursor that was processed, via a 30-kDa intermediate, to a mature 27-kDa uroplakin I, which in turn coimmunoprecipitated the 15-kDa mature UPII (Yu et al., 1990). Our current data have made it clear that the previously described 32-, 30-, and 15-kDa bands are actually prepro-UPII, pro-UPII, and mature UPII, respectively, and that the 27-kDa species is actually the coimmunoprecipitated, mature UPIa (cf. Figure 3F). 3) The AE31 antigen of cultured BU cells (29-kDa; Figure 1A, lane 7) is smaller than that of the mature bovine AUM (32-kDa; Figure 1A, lane 6). This can now be explained by the differentiation-dependent glycosylation of the prosequence (see below).
Conformational Changes in Tetraspanins and Their Associated Proteins
The use of a large panel of antibodies to multiple epitopes of uroplakins enabled us to study the accessibility of these epitopes in individual uroplakins, most likely as a function of protein folding/conformation, in multiple steps of AUM assembly. For example, tetraspanin UPIa, once bound to its partner pro-UPII (forming the UPIa/pro-UPII complex), becomes much less available for antibody recognition (compare the band intensities in lanes 9–13 of Figure 3, A vs. C). The fact that two separate anti-UPIa antibodies pulled down only UPIa without immunoprecipitating the UPIa/pro-UPII complex (Figure 3C, lanes 9–13) suggests masking or conformational changes of UPIa epitopes in the complex. Similar conformational changes were detected in UPIIIa, which almost completely loses its immunoreactivities with five independent antibodies when it binds with tetraspanin UPIb (Figure 7, A and B); however, UPIIIa can be recognized by all these antibodies when the UPIb/IIIa dimer is loosened by increasing the SDS concentration from 0.1 to 0.5% (Figure 4D). The fact that multiple UPIIIa epitopes become unavailable upon UPIb binding argues against the masking of only a small portion of the UPIIIa polypeptide by UPIb; rather, it supports the idea of global conformational changes of UPIIIa. Perhaps most striking is the complete switch in the immunoreactivities of UPII when pro-UPII is proteolytically processed to become the mature UPII (Figure 2, B and C). These findings are significant in two accounts. 1) This type of conformational changes, if unrecognized, can lead to misinterpretation of data generated using certain antibodies to tetraspanins and their associated proteins. 2) It is possible that these conformational changes can "lock" the membrane protein complex into an energetically more favorable and stable configuration and/or can expose new binding sites for the complex to further oligomerize.
Heterodimer Formation
Our cotransfection studies showed that UPIa and UPIb bind to pro-UPII and UPIIIa, respectively, forming two heterodimers, UPIa/pro-UPII and UPIb/UPIIIa, which can then exit from the ER (Figures 3, 4, and 7B; Tu et al., 2002). The ER-trapped, singly expressed pro-UPII and UPIIIa are degraded via the proteosome pathway (Figures 3 and 4); the unpaired UPIa and UPIb are, however, more stable than their partners. The trapped pro-UPII undergoes aggregation, which can be blocked by its correct partner UPIa, but not by UPIb or UPIIIa (Figure 2C). Genetic ablation of mouse UPII gene results in the ER-trapping of UPIa, whereas the remaining UPIb/UPIIIa pair is still targeted to the apical surface although its amount is vastly reduced and no 2D crystal is formed (Kong et al., 2004). Taken together, these data established the heterodimerization of UPIa/pro-UPII and UPIb/UPIIIa as an initial step of AUM assembly (Figure 7B) and suggested that uroplakin heterodimers are stabilized upon heterotetramer and/or particle formation (Figure 7, C2 to F2).
Differentiation-dependent Glycosylation of Pro-UPII and Possible Regulation of Heterotetramer Formation
The prosequence of UPII has three potential N-glycosylation sites (Lin et al., 1994), and the glycosylation reaction appears to be differentiation-dependent (Figures 1A and 5B). All three sites of the 29-kDa, Sarkosyl-soluble pro-UPII from cultured BU cells harbor high-mannose glycans; however, two of the three sites of the 32-kDa pro-UPII from purified, Sarkosyl-insoluble AUM harbor complex glycans (Figure 5). The fact that cultured BU cells lack the AUM-associated 32-kDa pro-UPII is interesting, because such cells, although synthesizing all four uroplakins, lack fusiform vesicles and fail to assemble plaques (Surya et al., 1990). This raises the possibility that the addition of complex glycans to the prosequence of pro-UPII plays a role in uroplakin assembly. In this regard, it is important to note that glycosylation can affect protein conformation (Imperiali and O'Connor, 1999; Helenius and Aebi, 2004) and that the expression and subcellular localization of some glycosyltransferases are known to be differentiation-dependent (Berger, 2002). We therefore hypothesize that a special, complex glycan-forming glycosyltransferase in superficial umbrella cells may be involved in producing the AUM-associated 32-kDa pro-UPII, which can then promote the binding between two heterodimers to form a heterotetramer (Figure 7C2). Because the extracellular large loop of tetraspanin CD81 can mediate homo- and heterodimer formation through its conserved stalk domains (Kitadokoro et al., 2001), it is possible that the heterotetramerization of the two uroplakin pairs (UPIa/pro-UPII and UPIb/UPIIIa) is mediated through UPIa:UPIb binding (Figure 7C2).
According to this hypothesis, the failure of the cultured BU cells to form the properly glycosylated 32-kDa pro-UPII (Figure 5B, lane 7) blocks heterotetramerization (Figure 7C1). Consistent with this, we can readily detect heterodimers in cultured BU cells by coimmunoprecipitation (Figures 3 and 4); however, we have not been able to detect heterotetramers. Because the 29-kDa pro-UPII is also produced by in vivo bovine urothelium (Figure 5, B and C), this protein is clearly not an artifact of cultured cells. In bovine urothelium, the superficial umbrella cells exhibit numerous discoidal and fusiform vesicles that deliver urothelial plaques to the apical surface. In contrast, cells located below the umbrella cells are less differentiated in that they contain much less uroplakins, exhibit almost no discoidal or fusiform vesicles, and lack cell surface-associated plaques (Surya et al., 1990; Wu et al., 1990; Yu et al., 1990; Kachar et al., 1999); these features are similar to those of cultured BU cells (Surya et al., 1990). It is possible that these relatively undifferentiated intermediate cells, like cultured cells, produce the 29-kDa pro-UPII (Figure 5B, lanes 4 and 7), which prevents uroplakins from assembling precociously into particles and plaques.
UPII Prosequence and Plaque Assembly
Our data indicate that antibodies to four distinct epitopes of the mature UPII (Figure 2A) fail to recognize pro-UPII (Figure 2B), and that the furin-mediated removal of the prosequence leads to the unmasking of these epitopes (Figure 2, B and D–F). Given the fact that these four epitopes are located throughout the mature sequence (Figure 2A), it seems unlikely that they are all "masked" by the prosequence per se; rather, our data favor a global conformational change. Although the function of the UPII prosequence is unknown, there are several examples in which the furin-mediated removal of a prosequence leads to protein oligomerization; these include Clostridium septicum -toxin (Ballard et al., 1993), anthrax toxin (Petosa et al., 1997; Sellman et al., 2001), and proaerolysin (Abrami et al., 1998). It is therefore possible that the furin-mediated removal of the UPII prosequence can facilitate the oligomerization of uroplakin heterotetramers (each constitutes one of the 6 dumbbell-shaped "subunits" in the 16-nm particle; Figure 7E2) to form the 16-nm urothelial particles. These particles further assemble into small 2D crystals in discoidal vesicles and later into large crystals in fusiform vesicles (Figure 7F2).
Mechanism by Which Tetraspanin CDs Promote the Surface Expression of Their Partner Proteins
Although emerging data indicate that tetraspanins can associate with other tetraspanins, growth factor receptors, integrins, and other membrane proteins (Boucheix and Rubinstein, 2001; Hemler, 2001, 2003), relatively little is known about the subcellular compartments in which these interactions occur and the effects of such interactions on the structure and processing of their interacting partners. Our data indicate that tetraspanins UPIa and UPIb are required for the ER-exit, processing, stabilization, and cell surface presentation of their respective partner proteins, UPII and UPIIIa (Figures 2, 3, 4; Tu et al., 2002). In addition, we showed that tetraspanins CD9, CD81, and CD82 can stabilize their partner CD4 (Figure 6); most likely this stabilization reflects CD9, CD81, and CD82's abilities to facilitate CD4's escape from the ER-associated degradation. Unlike uroplakins where the "magnitude" of interdependence between the tetraspanins (UPIa and Ib) and their single-transmembrane-domained associated proteins (UPII and UPIIIa) is practically absolute, the magnitude of stabilization between nonuroplakin tetraspanin CDs and their partners is relatively small. Possible reasons for this include: 1) Unlike uroplakins Ia and Ib, which interact selectively with UPII and UPIIIa, respectively, forming highly specific heterodimers, tetraspanin CDs can form complexes promiscuously with multiple partners; thus the stabilization effects within a given "pair" may be smaller. But this may be compensated by the fact that such partners can interact with, and can be stabilized by, multiple tetraspanins. 2) Although we have carefully selected the cell lines for transfection, these cells do contain some endogenous tetraspanin CDs and their associated proteins, which may reduce the observed degree of stabilization.
Taken together, our data suggest that tetraspanins serve the novel function as "maturation-facilitators" to enhance the ER-exit and surface presentation of their partner proteins. This model sheds light on some existing data. For example, Shi et al. (2000) showed that tetraspanin CD9 interacts with, and suppresses the proteolytic maturation of, the transmembrane form of TGF- (pro-TGF-) and leads to the accumulation and surface expression of pro-TGF-; the mechanism of pro-TGF- stabilization was, however, unclear. Our model raises the possibility that, in this system, tetraspanin CD9 facilitates the processing of pro-TGF-, resulting in its stabilization. Shoham et al. (2003) showed that although the ablation of tetraspanin CD81 gene has no effect on the mRNA level of CD19 (a single-transmembrane-domained, CD81-binding protein involved in B-cell receptor signaling), it diminishes the protein level and surface expression of CD19. Based on the finding that CD81 deficiency leads to an increase in the amounts of the endo H-sensitive form of CD19 (and a corresponding decrease in the more mature, endo H-resistant form), it was suggested that CD81 regulates the expression of CD19 in an undefined post-ER compartment. Our model implies that this regulation occurs in the ER, instead of post-ER. Finally, Stipp et al. (2003a) studied the interactions between tetraspanin CD81 and its partner EWI-2 (an immunoglobulin superfamily member with a single-transmembrane domain) and found that, in the absence of CD81, EWI-2 is somewhat decreased in quantity, is shifted to a slightly lower size most likely representing an immature, underglycosylated form, and fails to reach cell surface. Based on these data, it was concluded that CD81 controlled EWI-2 maturation and cell surface localization. Such results are totally consistent with our findings and again suggest that tetraspanin CD81 facilitates the ER-exit of EWI-2. Overall, the results from the above studies are in concert with ours (Table 1) and support the general idea that tetraspanins not only serve as "molecular facilitators" to recruit many cell surface-associated signaling molecules to specialized membrane subdomains, as having been suggested earlier (Maecker et al., 1997; Boucheix and Rubinstein, 2001; Hemler, 2003), but also function as "maturation-facilitators."
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONACKNOWLEDGMENTSREFERENCES |
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Address correspondence to: Tung-Tien Sun (sunt01{at}med.nyu.edu).
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REFERENCES |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONACKNOWLEDGMENTSREFERENCES |
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