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Vol. 17, Issue 7, 3318-3328, July 2006
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Gene Expression Programme, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
Submitted January 17, 2006;
Revised April 27, 2006;
Accepted April 28, 2006
Monitoring Editor: Jean Gruenberg
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ABSTRACT |
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 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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INTRODUCTION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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70 residues in size. The annexin core is conserved among all members of the annexin family. In contrast, N-terminal domains are variable in length and are believed to regulate annexin functions (Gerke and Moss, 2002
). By mediating intracellular Ca2+ signals, annexins have been shown to play a role in a variety of cellular processes. Some annexins have been reported to act as membrane scaffolds or to be involved in membrane trafficking and organization (Rescher and Gerke, 2004; Gerke et al., 2005). By blocking the access to lipid substrates, they may regulate enzyme activity like that of phospholipase A2 (Davidson et al., 1987). Other annexins modulate ion channel activity (Gerke and Moss, 2002) or are believed to conduct Ca2+ ions across membranes by themselves (Kourie and Wood, 2000). In addition, some members of the annexin family have extracellular and nuclear functions (Rescher and Gerke, 2004; Gerke et al., 2005).
Mammalian annexin A4 was first identified as Ca2+ and lipid-binding porcine protein II (Gerke and Weber, 1984; Weber et al., 1987). Later it was shown to self-associate on membrane surfaces and to aggregate phospholipid membranes (Zaks and Creutz, 1991). Moreover, annexin A4 formed trigonal crystals that assembled in ordered two-dimensional (2D) arrays on membrane surfaces (Newman et al., 1991; Zanotti et al., 1998; Kaetzel et al., 2001). Kaetzel et al. (2001) also showed that annexin A4 promoted vesicle aggregation in vitro. This activity was inhibited when the protein was phosphorylated by protein kinase C (PKC). Additionally, annexin A4 was shown to be part of a protein complex believed to have a role in synaptic exocytosis (Willshaw et al., 2004). These studies implied a role for annexin A4 in the regulation of vesicle trafficking.
It has been demonstrated that annexin A4 modulates Ca2+-activated Cl– conductance (CaCC) in colonic T84 epithelial cells (Chan et al., 1994; Kaetzel et al., 1994; Xie et al., 1996). CaCC localizes to the apical membrane of epithelial cells. It is activated by Ca2+ and/or phosphorylation by multifunctional Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) and is inhibited not only by annexin A4, but also by Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 and cellular phosphatases (Vajanaphanich et al., 1994; Xie et al., 1996, 1998; Carew et al., 2000; Ho et al., 2001). Accordingly, the CaCC in lung epithelia is a potential pharmacological target in cystic fibrosis (CF), because other Cl– channels like the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) and the outwardly rectifying Cl– channel (ORCC) are either not abundant or inactive in epithelia of CF patients, respectively. Thus, it is essential to understand the mechanism underlying regulation of CaCC, including the role of annexin A4, in order to develop future medication for CF.
Members of the annexin family are expressed in various cell types and tissues. Annexin A4 is predominantly found in epithelial cells (Dreier et al., 1998), mostly below the apical membrane (Kaetzel et al., 1989, 1994; Mayran et al., 1996). Few studies of annexin A4 localization have been conducted in cultured cells. Immunofluorescence experiments with human fibroblasts revealed that annexin A4 translocated to the inner surface of the nuclear membrane and the plasma membrane upon treatment of cells with Ca2+ ionophore A23187
[GenBank]
(Barwise and Walker, 1996; Raynal et al., 1996). The goal of our study was to analyze the dynamic behavior of annexin A4 in living cells. Using fluorescent protein labeling and imaging techniques, we studied annexin A4 translocation to cell membranes and its self-association on membrane surfaces. Additionally, we investigated the mobility of membrane-bound annexin A4 and its effect on the mobility of various membrane proteins.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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). To generate the annexin A4-ECFP and annexin A4-EYFP fusions, annexin A4 was amplified by PCR. The product was digested with EcoRI and BamHI and ligated into pEYFP-N1 and pECFP-N1 vectors (Clontech). EYFP tagged with the annexin A4 16 N-terminal amino acids was generated using primers that encode the 16 amino acids flanked with EcoRI and BamHI restriction sites. The primers were 5*#x2032; phosphorylated with T4 polynucleotide kinase, annealed, digested with restriction enzymes, and inserted into the pEYFP-N1 vector (Clontech). To construct the EYFP-annexin A4 core fusion, the sequence encoding the core of annexin A4 was amplified by PCR. The resulting product was digested with EcoRI and BamHI and inserted into the pEYFP-C1 vector (Clontech). To construct the EYFP-annexin A4-ECFP double fusion (CYNEX4), EYFP was amplified by PCR. The product was digested with BglII and EcoRI and ligated into the pECFP-N1-annexin A4 vector (construction described above).
YFP-PHPLC
1 was provided by Kees Jalink (The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam), ErbB1-EYFP by Philippe Bastiaens (European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg), CHRM2-EYFP and GPI-EYFP by Rainer Pepperkok (European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg). pEYFP-Mem was obtained from Clontech.
Cell Culture and Transfection
HeLa and N1E-115 cells were passaged and maintained in DMEM supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) and 0.1 mg/ml primocin. MDCK2 cells were maintained in MEM supplemented with 5% FBS, 2 mM L-glutamine, and 0.1 mg/ml primocin. For imaging experiments, cells were plated in 35-mm MatTek chambers (Ashland, MA) and transfected at 50–70% confluency. HeLa and N1E-115 cells were transfected with FuGENE 6 reagent (Roche, Mannheim, Germany). MDCK2 cells were transfected with either FuGENE 6 or Lipofectamine 2000 (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA). Transfections were performed in Opti-MEM (Invitrogen) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Cells were washed 12–24 h after transfection and incubated in imaging medium (20 mM HEPES, pH 7.4, 115 mM NaCl, 1.2 mM CaCl2, 1.2 mM MgCl2, 1.2 mM K2HPO4, 2 g/l D-glucose) at 37°C with 5% CO2 for 1–2 h before imaging.
Western Blotting
Cells were washed in phosphate-buffered saline and lysed in lysis buffer (50 mM HEPES, pH 7.5, 150 mM NaCl, 1 mM EDTA, 1 mM EGTA, 10% glycerol, 1% Triton X-100) supplemented with protease and phosphatase inhibitor cocktails (Sigma, Steinheim, Germany). The lysates were centrifuged to remove cell debris, and supernatants were stored at –70°C. Samples were separated by SDS-PAGE, and afterward proteins were transferred onto an Immobilon PVDF membrane (Millipore, Bedford, MA). An anti-annexin A4 mouse monoclonal antibody (BD Biosciences, San Diego, CA) and HRP-conjugated goat anti-mouse IgG (Bio-Rad, Richmond, CA) were used to detect annexin A4.
Confocal Microscopy and Image Analysis
Images were acquired on a Leica TCS SP2 AOBS microscope (Leica Microsystems, Heidelberg, Germany) with an HCX PL APO lbd.BL 63.0 x 1.40 oil objective at 30°C. Annexin A4 localization and translocation images were obtained with the following microscope settings: ECFP was excited with the 458-nm laser line, and emission was sampled between 470 and 500 nm; EYFP was excited with the 515-nm laser line, and emission was sampled between 525 and 600 nm (pinhole 2.62 airy). Images were background-corrected and smoothed with a median filter using ImageJ software (http://rsb.info.nih.gov/ij/).
ECFP and EYFP excitation and emission settings for acceptor bleaching experiments were the same as above (pinhole fully opened, 5.23 airy). EYFP was bleached in a rectangular region with the 515-nm laser line at 2/3 laser power after 10 iterations. ECFP image was acquired before and after bleaching of EYFP. Images were background corrected and smoothed with a median filter, and a threshold was applied. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) efficiency was calculated as described before (Wouters et al., 2001). All operations were done using ImageJ.
To calculate EYFP/ECFP ratio, ECFP was excited with a 20-mW 405-nm diode laser. ECFP was sampled between 470 and 510 nm and EYFP between 520 and 540 nm. Background-subtracted EYFP and ECFP images were smoothed with a median filter and thresholded. EYFP images were then divided by ECFP images using ImageJ. For calcium-imaging experiments 7–15 µM Fura red/AM (Molecular Probes, Eugene, OR) was loaded into cells for 30–40 min. Cells were then washed and incubated in fresh imaging medium for 15 min before acquisition. Fura red was also excited with a 405-nm laser line, and emission was sampled from 620 to 750 nm. Both ECFP and EYFP images were corrected for the Fura red bleed through before EYFP/ECFP ratio could be calculated. Experiments with high number of cells (>50) were acquired using an HCX PL APO 40.0 x 1.25 oil objective. The microscope settings and image processing were identical to those described above.
Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) experiments were done on a Leica TCS SP2 AOBS microscope (Leica Microsystems) using an HCX PL APO lbd.BL 63.0 x 1.40 oil objective at room temperature (22°C). The CHRM2-EYFP and ErbB1-EYFP constructs needed more time to express and localize in the plasma membrane. Photobleaching experiments with these constructs were therefore done 48–60 h after transfection. EYFP was bleached in a rectangular region (3 x 3 µm) with the 476-, 488-, 496-, and 515-nm laser lines at 280-mW Kr/Ar laser power in a single scan. Recovery of EYFP fluorescence between 525 and 600 nm was then monitored at low laser power with the 515-nm laser line. The images were background corrected and smoothed with a median filter. Recovery in the bleached region was measured and corrected for bleaching that occurred during acquisition at low laser power. The recovery (mobile fraction) was then calculated as described before (Lippincott-Schwartz et al., 2001).
Supplementary Material
Supplementary Video 1 shows EYFP-annexin A4 translocation in N1E-115 cells. Supplementary Videos 2 and 3 show CYNEX4 translocation/self-association in HeLa and N1E-115 cells, respectively. Translocation was in all cases induced with 5–10 µM ionomycin. Fluorescence emission is shown in gray. Emission ratios are shown in false color, with blue representing low and red representing high emission ratio.
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RESULTS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Annexin A4 Self-Association on Membrane Surfaces
Annexin A4 is known to form 2D trimer-based arrays on membrane surfaces in the presence of Ca2+ (Newman et al., 1991; Kaetzel et al., 2001; Figure 2A). Because this phenomenon has previously been observed only in vitro, we wanted to test if such protein self-association occurs in vivo. First, we used an intermolecular FRET approach, similar to that previously described for lipid-sensing pleckstrin homology (PH) domains by van der Wal et al. (2001). ECFP- and EYFP-labeled annexin A4 constructs were cotransfected and expressed in HeLa cells. Ionomycin was used to elevate [Ca2+]i. On protein translocation to membranes, the EYFP/ECFP emission ratio increased up to 300% (Figure 2, B–D), suggesting that the molecules packed so tightly that very strong FRET could occur. However, unspecific and random interaction could not be excluded using this approach.
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). As expected, CYNEX4 eliminated the problems of coexpression, while still showing the same localization and translocation properties. However, CYNEX4 was less abundant in the nucleus in comparison to single fluorescent protein fusions. Ratiometric measurements with the novel sensor were performed in all three cell lines. Figure 2, F and G (and Supplementary Video 2), depicts the results in HeLa cells. Results in MDCK2 and N1E-115 cells were similar (unpublished data). CYNEX4 reported up to 150% increase of EYFP/ECFP ratio upon translocation. Experiments with HeLa cells seemed to show that FRET increased also in the cytosol, not only on cell membranes. However, what appeared to be cytosolic fluorescence was in fact membrane signals below and above the imaging plane in flat HeLa cells. Experiments in high, pyramid shaped N1E-115 cells, where such membrane signal contribution did not occur with our microscopy settings (see Materials and Methods), showed that FRET did not increase in the cytosol before probe translocation (Figure 3, A and B; Supplementary Video 3). This indicated that annexin A4 self-association indeed took place only on cell membrane surfaces.
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1 (YFP-PHPLC1; Figure 7, A–E). The mobile fraction of the PH domain in the plasma membrane was 76.2 ± 5.0% (±SD, n = 3). On the other hand, the recovery of annexin A4 on the membrane reached only 5.3 ± 2.4% (±SD, n = 3), observed over a much larger time span. This clearly demonstrates that the protein is almost completely immobile on the plasma and the nuclear membrane surface. Therefore it is likely that annexin A4 forms highly ordered arrays on membrane surfaces in vivo, as previously described in vitro.
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). We therefore compared the mobility of membrane proteins before and after ionomycin-induced annexin A4 translocation to the plasma membrane in cells that overexpressed ECFP-annexin A4. Four EYFP-labeled membrane proteins were chosen: a G-protein–coupled receptor (cholinergic receptor, CHRM2-EYFP), a receptor tyrosine kinase (EGF receptor, ErbB1-EYFP), an EYFP protein that localizes to the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane (EYFP-Mem, EYFP fused to the 20 N-terminal amino acids of neuromodulin bearing a palmitoylation sequence), and an EYFP protein that localizes to the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane (glycosylphosphatidylinositol, GPI-EYFP). First, HeLa cells were transfected with these constructs and their mobility after photobleaching was measured with and without ionomycin treatment (Figure 8, A and C). The experiments were then repeated with ECFP-annexin A4 coexpressed with the membrane proteins (Figure 8, B and C). The FRAP experiments revealed a strong annexin A4 effect on the mobility of all tested membrane proteins except GPI-EYFP, which localized to the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane and was therefore not expected to be strongly restricted by a grid that forms on the inner leaflet (Figure 8D). In control experiments with HeLa cells transfected only with membrane proteins but without annexin A4 overexpression, treatment with ionomycin partially reduced mobility of the membrane proteins or had no effect (GPI-EYFP). This partial effect could also be observed in N1E-115 cells (Figure 8E). Most likely, different endogenous annexins were responsible for this effect. Based on these experiments, it can be concluded that annexin A4 strongly influences general plasma membrane protein mobility in a Ca2+-dependent manner.
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DISCUSSION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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; Raynal et al., 1996). In addition, we observed that translocation of nuclear annexin A4 always follows the translocation of the cytosolic protein, mostly with a delay of 30 s to 2 min. The reason for the delay may be either the difference in Ca2+ concentration between the cytosol and the nucleus or the difference in phospholipid composition of the plasma and the nuclear membrane. Annexin A4 has in fact been shown to exhibit selectivity for particular phospholipids in vitro, for instance, phosphatidylserine (Blackwood and Ernst, 1990; Edwards and Crumpton, 1991; Junker and Creutz, 1994; Sohma et al., 2001).
Cores of several annexins lacking the N-terminal regulatory domain have been observed to have different localization preferences than wild-type proteins (Rescher et al., 2000; Eberhard et al., 2001). We could not observe any difference between the wild-type annexin A4 localization and localization of its core N-terminally fused to a fluorescent protein. Therefore, it appears from our experiments that the interaction of annexin A4 with cellular membranes in living cells does not require the presence of the N-terminal domain and that the core of the protein is sufficient for complete protein translocation upon elevation of [Ca2+]i. Consequently, we do not expect that membrane binding is regulated by phosphorylation of the N-terminal domain, as is described for some annexins (Gerke and Moss, 2002). In vitro data with phosphorylated annexin A4 support this conclusion (Kaetzel et al., 2001).
Annexin A4 Self-Association
Annexin A4 self-association was, until now, observed only in vitro (Zaks and Creutz, 1991). To investigate this process in living cells, we first used the approach described by van der Wal et al. (2001). These authors used ratiometric imaging of CFP- and YFP-tagged PH domains to monitor PI(4,5)P2 levels and its breakdown by phospholipase C. They observed about a 30% higher YFP/CFP ratio when the PH domains were membrane bound. We used ECFP- and EYFP-labeled annexin A4 and measured up to a 300% increase in emission ratio upon Ca2+-induced protein translocation to the cellular membranes. This strong increase probably reflects the tight packing of molecules because of protein–protein interactions and the completeness of translocation. Still, we could not entirely exclude the possibility that the FRET raise is a result of increase of the effective protein concentration when docking to the 2D membrane surface and random molecular interaction.
To avoid the problem of unequal expression levels of singly labeled annexin A4, we designed the double-tagged FRET sensor, CYNEX4. Ratiometric EYFP/ECFP imaging of CYNEX4 gave up to 150% increase upon protein translocation. The ratio change is smaller than that obtained with singly labeled proteins, as there is already a significant amount of intramolecular FRET in the absence of Ca2+. This was confirmed by acceptor bleaching experiments. CYNEX4 used in parallel with the Fura red Ca2+ sensor demonstrated that [Ca2+]i rises preceded protein translocation. Translocation was delayed possibly because a certain Ca2+ threshold had to be reached.
CYNEX4 was applied in an experiment designed to reveal the origin of the FRET signal upon translocation. We correlated the expression level of CYNEX4 to the FRET increase upon membrane binding in HeLa cells. In case of random interaction, we were expecting linear dependency of energy transfer efficiency and protein concentration. On the other hand, if annexin A4 was self-associating, FRET efficiency would be independent of CYNEX4 concentration (Zaks and Creutz, 1991). The distribution we obtained was neither linearly dependent nor independent of protein concentration. The reason for this is most likely the expression of endogenous annexin A4 in HeLa cells. The latter could interact with CYNEX4 and compete in complex and array formation. At a lower CYNEX4 concentration endogenous protein diluted the CYNEX4 fraction in the arrays, resulting in less FRET. The opposite happened in cells expressing high levels of CYNEX4. In N1E-115 cells endogenous annexin A4 was not detected, and FRET efficiency was not dependent on CYNEX4 concentration as in HeLa cells. Therefore, we conclude that annexin A4 indeed self-associates in living cells. This was further confirmed by FRAP experiments: annexin A4 showed minimal mobility after translocation and hence a very different behavior compared with the PH domain of PLC1.
Annexin A4 Effect on Membrane Proteins
One of the consequences of such immobile array formation on the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane may be inhibition of mobility of other membrane proteins. We tested this hypothesis using four different membrane proteins. Mobility of all proteins, except GPI-EYFP, was indeed severely affected in HeLa cells overexpressing annexin A4, after its translocation to the plasma membrane. However, we could also observe ionomycin-induced reduction of mobility in cells not overexpressing annexin A4. It is likely that endogenous annexin A4 and other annexins are responsible for this effect. We demonstrated that annexin A4 is present in HeLa cells (Figure 6D), and at least two other members of the annexin family were previously identified in the same cell type (Sullivan et al., 2000; Grewal et al., 2005). The variability observed in these experiments would reflect the heterogeneity in the Ca2+ response, the variability of annexin expression and the efficiency of their translocation. Still, we cannot exclude the existence of another, yet unknown Ca2+-dependent mechanism that regulates membrane protein mobility, because a partially inhibitory effect was observed also in N1E-115 cells that do not express endogenous annexin A4. Nonetheless, the fact that complete annexin A4 translocation results in strong membrane protein immobilization suggests that this may be one of annexin A4 functions. Annexin A4 is therefore, if not the sole regulator, at least part of a more complex Ca2+-dependent protein mobility regulation mechanism. This function would by no means be exclusive for annexin A4. Any other member of the annexin family with similar array-forming properties could have the same impact on membrane protein mobility. Depending on tissue distribution, expression levels, and subcellular localization, these annexins could interfere with processes depending on membrane protein–protein interaction (e.g., receptor tyrosine kinase dimerization and growth factor signaling). The regulation of membrane protein mobility through annexin A4 arrays may be physiologically relevant in the context of epithelial Ca2+/CaMKII-dependent Cl– secretion. Annexin A4 is known to inhibit CaCC (Chan et al., 1994; Kaetzel et al., 1994; Xie et al., 1996). Previously Chan et al. (1994) proposed that annexin A4 arrays could sterically hinder CaMKII and prevent channel phosphorylation, leading to inhibition of Cl– conductance. However, the identity of the channels responsible for the Ca2+-activated Cl– conductance still remains unclear, with several potential candidates, such as Ca2+-activated Cl– channels and bestrophins. It is therefore possible that, by interacting with each other, several proteins contribute to the observed Ca2+-activated Cl– current (Fuller et al., 2005). Thus, inhibition of mobility and interaction of those channels may be another level of annexin A4–mediated regulation of epithelial Cl– secretion (Figure 9).
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Conclusion and Outlook
Fluorescent protein labeling and fluorescence imaging techniques allowed us to study annexin A4 in living cells. Protein translocation, self-association, and mobility were analyzed. The results indicated that annexin A4 may function as a membrane protein mobility regulator, which may also provide a mechanism of CaCC regulation. The sensor we developed, CYNEX4, may be utilized in the future to study annexin A4 dynamics in a more physiological setup, like polarized epithelia or tissue, or to search for activators or inhibitors of annexin A4 self-association. Certainly, similar sensors could be developed and used to study the function of other members of the annexin family.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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Footnotes |
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The online version of this article contains supplemental material at MBC Online (http://www.molbiolcell.org). 
Address correspondence to: Carsten Schultz ( schultz{at}embl.de)
Abbreviations used: [Ca2+]i, intracellular calcium concentration; CaMKII, multifunctional calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II; CaCC, calcium-activated chloride conductance; CF, cystic fibrosis; CYNEX4, cyan-yellow-labelled annexin A4; ECFP, enhanced cyan fluorescent protein; EYFP, enhanced yellow fluorescent protein; FRET, fluorescence resonance energy transfer; PLC1, phospholipase C1.
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